Jointly published by The Division of General Studies, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria (formerly Anambra State University) and Klamidas.com International Journal of General Studies (IJGS), Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2025. https://klamidas.com/ijgs-v5n1-2025-04/ |
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Biblical Understanding of Ecology: The Spiritual and Economic Benefits of Mountains as a Vehicle for Sustainability in Nigeria Oghenekevwe Kate Jibromah
ABSTRACT Mountains and hills hold profound significance in African religious traditions, both indigenous and orthodox, mirroring their importance in biblical narratives, particularly to the people of Israel. They feature prominently in the stories of Moses, the prophets, and Jesus Christ. In Nigeria, the concept of Prayer Mountains is integral to Christian practice, serving as dedicated spaces for spiritual exercises. These locations, including mountain tops, groves, forests, and river banks, are particularly significant within African Indigenous Churches (AICS). Despite existing literature on mountains, this study delves into their spiritual and economic benefits, focusing on their potential for sustainability in Nigeria. Employing historical, contextual and hermeneutical research methods, the paper explores the religious and economic value attributed to natural landmarks, specifically mountains and hills. It concludes that Nigeria stands to gain substantially from leveraging mountains as a tool for sustainability, emphasizing the multifaceted benefits they offer to the nation. Keywords: biblical, ecology, economic, mountains, sustainability, vehicle, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION Mountains have held deep spiritual, cultural, and economic significance throughout human history. In many religious traditions, they are seen as places of divine encounter, worship, revelation, and spiritual transformation. The Bible, particularly in Jewish and Christian traditions, is filled with accounts of God’s presence, miracles, and significant religious events occurring on mountains. From Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten Commandments, to Mount Zion, which became central to Jewish worship, and Mount Moriah, the site of Abraham’s test of faith, mountains are revered as sacred spaces that symbolize divine authority and covenant relationships. In the New Testament, Jesus frequently used mountains as places of prayer, teaching, and revelation. Events such as the Sermon on the Mount, the Transfiguration, and His post-resurrection appearances on mountains highlight their continued significance in Christian spirituality. These biblical narratives have influenced the way Christians perceive and engage with mountains as places of prayer, divine revelation, and spiritual renewal. In contemporary African Christianity, mountains continue to play a central role in spiritual practices. Many believers retreat to mountains for intensive prayer, fasting, and seeking divine intervention. Across different African countries, churches and Christian movements have established Prayer Mountains where individuals and congregations gather for worship, deliverance, and personal encounters with God. Notable examples include Ori Oke Baba Abiye in Nigeria, Namugongo Prayer Mountain in Uganda, and Mount Moriah in South Africa. These sites are considered sacred, and many testimonies of healing, breakthroughs, and spiritual empowerment are associated with them. However, while the use of mountains in African Christianity has brought spiritual renewal and deeper devotion, it has also raised important theological, ethical, and practical concerns. Issues such as syncretism (mixing Christian beliefs with traditional African spirituality), commercialization of prayer mountains, safety risks due to extreme fasting, and misconceptions about the necessity of mountains for divine encounters have emerged. This raises the need for a balanced biblical and theological understanding of the role of mountains in Christian faith. The Place of Mountains in Jewish Tradition Mountains hold a significant place in Jewish tradition, serving as sacred sites for divine encounters, covenantal revelations, and acts of worship. Throughout the Hebrew Bible, mountains symbolize closeness to God, places of refuge, and locations where divine commandments are given. This section explores the role of mountains in Jewish spirituality, history, and theology Mountains as Sites of Divine Revelation Mountains have long been central to Jewish tradition, serving as pivotal sites of divine revelation. Mount Sinai, for instance, is where God delivered the Torah to Moses, establishing the foundational laws and covenant between God and the Israelites (Exodus 19–20). This event, marked by the mountain shrouded in smoke and trembling under God’s presence, symbolizes divine authority and holiness. As noted by Kalimi (2002), “Mount Sinai is depicted as the quintessential place of divine revelation, where the Israelites receive the Decalogue amidst awe-inspiring theophany” (p. 15). Similarly, Mount Moriah holds profound significance as the site where Abraham was tested in the binding of Isaac (Genesis 22:2). This location later became the site of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem, solidifying its status as a sacred space in Jewish religious life. Kalimi (2002) observes, “The identification of Mount Moriah with the Temple Mount underscores its enduring sanctity in Jewish consciousness” (p. 22). Mountains as Places of Worship and Pilgrimage Mountains have historically served as central places of worship and pilgrimage in Jewish tradition, symbolizing both divine presence and national identity. They are not merely physical elevations but hold deep theological, historical, and eschatological significance. The Temple Mount (Mount Moriah) and Jewish Worship The Temple Mount, located on Mount Moriah, remains one of the most sacred places in Judaism. According to biblical tradition, it was the site where King Solomon built the First Temple (1 Kings 6) and where the Second Temple was later reconstructed during the post-exilic period (Ezra 6). This made it the focal point of Jewish worship for centuries, drawing thousands of worshippers for rituals and sacrifices. Pilgrimage to the Temple Mount was a fundamental part of Jewish religious life, especially during the three pilgrimage festivals:
As Reiter and Dimant (2020) observe, “The Temple Mount has been the epicenter of Jewish religious life, with pilgrimages during key festivals underscoring its centrality” (p. 45). The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE profoundly impacted Jewish worship, shifting the focus from sacrificial rituals to synagogue-based prayer and study. However, the Temple Mount remains a symbol of Jewish eschatological hope and is still revered in contemporary Jewish prayers and traditions. Mount Zion and Jewish National Identity Another mountain of great spiritual significance is Mount Zion, which became a powerful symbol of Jewish faith, divine protection, and national unity. In biblical literature, Zion is frequently referenced as the dwelling place of God and a representation of His eternal kingdom.
Mount Zion also became associated with the Davidic monarchy, reinforcing its role as a national and religious symbol. Kornberg (2018) notes, “Mount Zion not only represented divine protection but also the restoration of Israel’s sovereignty, particularly in post-exilic and Second Temple periods” (p. 87). Over time, Zion became synonymous with Jerusalem itself, and the longing for its restoration is a recurring theme in Jewish liturgy and eschatology. Prophetic Encounters on Mountains Mountains have been pivotal in Jewish prophetic narratives, serving as settings for profound divine encounters. Mount Carmel is notably associated with the prophet Elijah’s confrontation against the prophets of Baal, as detailed in 1 Kings 18:16–40. This event, where fire descended from heaven to consume Elijah’s sacrifice, reinforced the belief in monotheism and God’s sovereignty. Na’aman (2020) discusses this episode, highlighting its reflection of religious-cultural dynamics of the time. Similarly, Mount Nebo holds significance as the place where Moses viewed the Promised Land before his death, as recounted in Deuteronomy 34:1–5. Although Moses was not permitted to enter, this moment on Mount Nebo became a profound reflection on God’s promises and leadership. This narrative underscores the themes of fulfillment and transition in the Israelites’ journey. Mountains as Symbols of Strength and Stability Mountains hold profound symbolic significance in Jewish thought, often representing divine strength, protection, and eternal stability. This is exemplified in Psalm 121:1–2: “I lift up my eyes to the mountains—where does my help come from? My help comes from the Lord…” Here, the psalmist associates the enduring presence of mountains with the unwavering support provided by God, suggesting that just as mountains are steadfast, so too is divine assistance. In rabbinic literature, mountains are frequently employed as metaphors for various spiritual concepts. For instance, in the Talmud, Rabbi Yose discusses the foundational role of mountains in the world’s structure, stating that the earth stands upon pillars, which in turn stand upon water, and the water upon mountains (Chagigah 12b). This cosmological depiction underscores the perceived stability and foundational importance of mountains in the created order. Moreover, mountains are seen as symbols of faith and wisdom, representing the challenges one must overcome to achieve spiritual growth. The Talmudic narrative of God suspending Mount Sinai over the Israelites during the giving of the Torah (Shabbat 88a) serves as a powerful metaphor for the weight and significance of divine commandments, as well as the profound responsibility of accepting them. These symbolic interpretations highlight the multifaceted role of mountains in Jewish tradition, portraying them as embodiments of strength, stability, and the spiritual ascent inherent in the pursuit of faith and wisdom. Mountains in Jewish tradition are more than just geographical features; they are sacred places where God’s presence is revealed, laws are given, and faith is tested. They serve as sites of pilgrimage, divine encounters, and symbols of strength and stability. Whether as the setting of foundational religious events or as metaphorical expressions of spiritual ascent, mountains remain deeply embedded in Jewish religious consciousness. The Role of Mountains in the New Testament Mountains continue to hold significant theological and symbolic roles in the New Testament, often serving as sites of divine revelation, spiritual transformation, and pivotal moments in the ministry of Jesus Christ. Throughout the Gospels, Jesus frequently retreats to mountains for prayer, delivers key teachings from elevated places, and performs miracles on or near mountains. These instances highlight the continued association of mountains with divine presence, authority, and revelation in Christian thought. Mountains as Places of Divine Encounter and Revelation Just as Mount Sinai was a place of divine revelation in the Old Testament, mountains in the New Testament serve as settings for profound encounters between God and humanity. One of the most striking examples is the Transfiguration of Jesus on Mount Tabor (or possibly Mount Hermon).
The Sermon on the Mount: Mountains as Places of Teaching One of the most significant instances of Jesus teaching occurs on a mountain, reinforcing the biblical tradition of mountains as places of divine revelation and transformation. The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7): The Sermon on the Mount is considered one of Jesus’ most important teachings, outlining the principles of the Kingdom of God. Delivered from an elevated place, the sermon includes the Beatitudes, moral instructions, and directives on prayer, fasting, and righteousness. Jesus reinterprets the Law, calling His followers to a higher standard of love, humility, and righteousness that surpasses mere legalistic obedience. According to France (2007), “The Sermon on the Mount is best understood as a new Sinai event, where Jesus, as the authoritative teacher, declares the deeper, spiritual essence of the Law” (p. 183). As Harrington (1991:79) notes, “By delivering His teachings on a mountain, Jesus is presented as the new Moses, giving a new law that surpasses the old covenant”. This setting reinforces the authority of Jesus’ words and highlights His role as the fulfillment of the Law and the Prophets. Jesus’ Mountain Prayers as a Reflection of Old Testament Traditions The Jewish tradition often associates mountains with divine encounters and spiritual elevation. Many key figures in the Old Testament—such as Moses (Exodus 19:3, 33:18-23), Elijah (1 Kings 19:8-13), and David (Psalm 121:1-2)—sought God’s presence on mountains.
By frequently praying on mountains, Jesus aligns Himself with these prophetic traditions, reinforcing His role as the ultimate mediator between God and humanity. Stein (2008) notes, “Jesus’ mountain prayers reflect the biblical tradition of seeking God on high places, reinforcing His deep relationship with the Father” (p. 145).As France (2007) explains, “Jesus’ all-night prayer on the mountain before choosing His disciples illustrates His deep communion with the Father and the necessity of prayer in leadership and decision-making” (p. 212). Spiritual Meaning:
As Wright (2012) states, “The Mount of Olives becomes the stage for Jesus’ final test of obedience, highlighting the mountain as a place where divine strength is sought in times of human weakness” (p. 312). As Witherington (2001) observes, “The Gospels repeatedly portray Jesus withdrawing to mountains to pray, underscoring prayer’s role as a means of spiritual fortification and divine direction” (p. 198). The Mount of Olives: A Place of Prophecy, Suffering, and Ascension The Mount of Olives plays a crucial role in the final days of Jesus’ earthly ministry, serving as a setting for prophetic teachings, deep spiritual struggle, and His glorious ascension. This mountain, situated east of Jerusalem, holds both symbolic and theological significance in Christian thought, representing divine revelation, suffering, and ultimate victory. The Olivet Discourse: A Prophetic Warning (Matthew 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21) During the Olivet Discourse, Jesus delivers one of His most profound prophetic teachings, foretelling the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple, signs of the end times, and His second coming. Speaking privately to His disciples on the Mount of Olives, He warns about false messiahs, wars, persecutions, and the necessity of vigilance.
As Keener (1999:521) notes, “Jesus’ choice of the Mount of Olives for His eschatological discourse aligns with Jewish apocalyptic traditions, reinforcing His role as the fulfillment of messianic prophecies”. According to Marshall (2001:288), “Jesus’ agony in Gethsemane highlights the depth of His human suffering, yet also His unwavering commitment to the Father’s plan”. The Ascension: A Moment of Glory and Promise (Acts 1:9-12) The Mount of Olives is also the site of Jesus’ ascension into heaven. After His resurrection, He appears to His disciples, giving them final instructions to spread the Gospel.
As Wright (2012) states, “The Mount of Olives serves as the bridge between Jesus’ suffering, His prophetic teachings, and His ultimate glorification, symbolizing both judgment and redemption” (p. 312). The Place of Mountains in African Christianity in Contemporary Times Mountains hold significant spiritual and cultural value in African Christianity today, serving as places of prayer, retreat, divine encounters, and pilgrimage. Many Christian communities across Africa associate mountains with spiritual power, divine presence, and supernatural experiences, similar to biblical traditions. This section explores how mountains continue to shape Christian worship and belief in contemporary African contexts. Mountains as Sacred Prayer Retreats In many African Christian movements, particularly among Pentecostal and Charismatic churches, mountains are considered sacred spaces for prayer, fasting, and divine encounters. Believers retreat to these elevated locations, often spending days or weeks in prayer, seeking:
Examples in Contemporary African Christianity:
In addition to personal devotion, churches and Christian leaders frequently organize mountain prayer retreats for congregational intercession, ministerial direction, and national spiritual awakening. Some believers even build small huts or prayer camps on these mountains, dedicating their time solely to communion with God.According to Ogunleye(2020),“Mountains in African Christianity are seen as gateways to divine power, reinforcing the belief that solitude in elevated places fosters deeper spiritual encounters” (p. 114). This perspective aligns with biblical traditions where key figures such as Moses (Exodus 24:12), Elijah (1 Kings 19:8-12), and Jesus (Matthew 17:1-9) sought divine revelation on mountains. While this practice continues to grow, it also raises concerns about safety, as some believers engage in prolonged fasting, leading to health risks, and theological debates, as critics caution against equating physical elevation with God’s presence. Nonetheless, the belief in mountains as places of spiritual renewal, divine revelation, and supernatural power remains deeply rooted in contemporary African Christianity. Pilgrimage to Mountains for Spiritual Encounters Just as Mount Sinai, Mount Zion, and the Mount of Olives hold significance in biblical tradition, many African Christians undertake pilgrimages to mountains, believing them to be portals of divine visitation. These pilgrimages are often motivated by the desire for spiritual renewal, divine revelation, and supernatural breakthroughs. Some churches designate specific mountains as sacred prayer sites, encouraging believers to journey there for extended periods of prayer and fasting. For many, these mountains serve as places where barriers between the physical and spiritual realms seem thinner, making it easier to receive divine instruction, visions, and prophetic guidance. Pilgrims often climb mountains barefoot, believing that removing their shoes signifies reverence and humility before God, as seen in Moses’ encounter at the burning bush (Exodus 3:5). Examples in Contemporary African Christianity:
These pilgrimages reflect a broader belief in seeking God through intentional spiritual discipline and withdrawal from daily distractions. They also create a sense of community and shared faith, as large numbers of believers gather to pray collectively. As Mbiti (1999) states, “African Christianity has contextualized the biblical concept of sacred mountains, incorporating local traditions that view high places as sites of divine-human interaction” (p. 231). This blending of biblical narratives with African cultural traditions has contributed to the enduring significance of mountains as places of worship, spiritual warfare, and divine encounters. Mountains as Places of Spiritual Warfare and Deliverance Many African churches believe that mountains provide an atmosphere for breaking spiritual strongholds, casting out demons, and seeking divine protection. This belief is influenced by biblical references such as:
For many African Christians, mountains are seen as spiritual battlegrounds, where prayers are more effective in overcoming personal struggles, demonic oppression, and generational curses. Economic Importance of Mountains Mountains hold significant economic importance in various ways, both locally and globally. Here are some key aspects of their economic significance:
Overall, mountains play a crucial role in supporting economic activities and livelihoods, both within mountain communities and in downstream areas that benefit from the resources and services provided by mountain ecosystems. Sustainable management of mountain resources is essential to ensure their long-term economic viability and environmental integrity. Contemporary African Practices:
According to Adogame (2013), “African Pentecostal movements associate mountains with supernatural power, making them essential sites for prayer and deliverance sessions” (p. 189). Similarly, Kalu (2008) notes that “prayer mountains in Africa function as both sacred and strategic spaces where believers engage in deep spiritual battles to reclaim their destinies” (p. 276). Many African Christian leaders emphasize that mountains provide a distraction-free environment where believers can focus on spiritual warfare, prophetic revelations, and intercession. However, there are concerns about the dangers of extreme fasting, exposure to harsh weather, and the commercialization of prayer mountains by some churches. Despite these challenges, mountain prayer retreats remain a key feature of contemporary African Christianity, symbolizing divine power, protection, and deliverance. Conclusion Mountains hold profound spiritual and economic significance in both biblical traditions and contemporary African Christianity. From Jewish traditions, where mountains such as Mount Sinai, Mount Moriah, and Mount Zion were sites of divine revelation and worship, to the New Testament, where Jesus frequently used mountains for prayer, teaching, and significant events like the Sermon on the Mount and the Transfiguration, their role in faith cannot be overstated. In contemporary African Christianity, mountains have become places of prayer, fasting, spiritual warfare, and pilgrimage, reflecting both biblical influences and indigenous beliefs in sacred high places. Many believers retreat to mountains for personal spiritual growth, divine encounters, healing, and deliverance. However, alongside these benefits, certain challenges and controversies have emerged, including:
Despite these challenges, mountains continue to be regarded as sacred spaces that facilitate deep spiritual encounters. The biblical and historical significance of mountains reinforces their continued use as places of divine connection, prayer, and worship. However, their usage should align with sound biblical teachings, responsible spiritual practices, and ethical leadership to prevent exploitation and misconceptions. Recommendation To ensure that mountains continue to serve as beneficial spaces for Christian worship and spiritual encounters, the following recommendations should be considered:
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